An Integrated Approach to Assess Knowledge/Perceptions and Attitudes/Practices (KAP) Regarding Major Neglected Tropical Diseases Endemic in the Mbengwi Health District, North West Region, Cameroon.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Preventive chemotherapy (PCT) is the main strategy currently used to control and/or eliminate onchocerciasis, lymphatic filariasis (LF) and soil transmitted helminthiasis (STH), and community participation (through implementation or adherence to PCT) is critical. This study aimed at investigating knowledge/perceptions of populations of the Mbengwi health district (North West Region, Cameroon), in relation to their attitudes/practices regarding the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). METHODS: A household-based cross-sectional survey was carried out in the Mbengwi health district (North West Region, Cameroon) using the cluster sampling technique. Clusters were selected using the probability proportionate to estimate size strategy. In each cluster, the random walk technique was used for the selection of households, and a structure questionnaire was administered to 2-3 of its members. RESULTS: A total of 254 households from 26 clusters were visited, and 514 individuals were interviewed. The sex ratio of interviewees (1.08) was unbiased, and their ages ranged between 10 and 99 years old. Though most of the respondents declared having already heard of these NTDs (41.6%, 73.9% and 90.5% for onchocerciasis, LF and STH, respectively), only a minority of them were aware of how they are acquired/transmitted (8.9%, 9.2% and 32.7% for onchocerciasis, LF and STH, respectively), or prevented (23.1%, 18.9% and 47.2% for onchocerciasis, LF and STH, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed poor knowledge/perceptions and wrong attitudes/practices of interviewees as regards to these NTDs, and these misconceptions can seriously affect the adherence and contribution of populations to the success of PCTs. It appears compulsory to reinforce information, education, and communication, with a focus on the rationale and importance behind PCTs, to optimize/improve community participation.

Unusual Localization of Blood-Borne Loa loa Microfilariae in the Skin Depends on Microfilarial Density in the Blood: Implications for Onchocerciasis Diagnosis in Coendemic Areas.

BACKGROUND: The diagnostic gold standard for onchocerciasis relies on identification and enumeration of (skin-dwelling) Onchocerca volvulus microfilariae (mf) using the skin snip technique (SST). In a recent study, blood-borne Loa loa mf were found by SST in individuals heavily infected with L. loa, and microscopically misidentified as O. volvulus due to their superficially similar morphology. This study investigates the relationship between L. loa microfilarial density (Loa MFD) and the probability of testing SST positive. METHODS: A total of 1053 participants from the (onchocerciasis and loiasis coendemic) East Region in Cameroon were tested for (1) Loa MFD in blood samples, (2) O. volvulus presence by SST, and (3) Immunoglobulin (Ig) G4 antibody positivity to Ov16 by rapid diagnostic test (RDT). A Classification and Regression Tree (CART) model was used to perform a supervised classification of SST status and identify a Loa MFD threshold above which it is highly likely to find L. loa mf in skin snips. RESULTS: Of 1011 Ov16-negative individuals, 28 (2.8%) tested SST positive and 150 (14.8%) were L. loa positive. The range of Loa MFD was 0-85 200 mf/mL. The CART model subdivided the sample into 2 Loa MFD classes with a discrimination threshold of 4080 (95% CI, 2180-12 240) mf/mL. The probability of being SST positive exceeded 27% when Loa MFD was >4080 mf/mL. CONCLUSIONS: The probability of finding L. loa mf by SST increases significantly with Loa MFD. Skin-snip polymerase chain reaction would be useful when monitoring onchocerciasis prevalence by SST in onchocerciasis-loiasis coendemic areas.

Feasibility of Onchocerciasis Elimination Using a "Test-and-not-treat" Strategy in Loa loa Co-endemic Areas.

BACKGROUND: Mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin is the main strategy for onchocerciasis elimination. Ivermectin is generally safe, but is associated with serious adverse events in individuals with high Loa loa microfilarial densities (MFD). Therefore, ivermectin MDA is not recommended in areas where onchocerciasis is hypo-endemic and L loa is co-endemic. To eliminate onchocerciasis in those areas, a test-and-not-treat (TaNT) strategy has been proposed. We investigated whether onchocerciasis elimination can be achieved using TaNT and the required duration. METHODS: We used the individual-based model ONCHOSIM to predict the impact of TaNT on onchocerciasis microfilarial (mf) prevalence. We simulated precontrol mf prevalence levels from 2% to 40%. The impact of TaNT was simulated under varying levels of participation, systematic nonparticipation, and exclusion from ivermectin resulting from high L loa MFD. For each scenario, we assessed the time to elimination, defined as bringing onchocerciasis mf prevalence below 1.4%. RESULTS: In areas with 30% to 40% precontrol mf prevalence, the model predicted that it would take between 14 and 16 years to bring the mf prevalence below 1.4% using conventional MDA, assuming 65% participation. TaNT would increase the time to elimination by up to 1.5 years, depending on the level of systematic nonparticipation and the exclusion rate. At lower exclusion rates (≤2.5%), the delay would be less than 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: Our model predicts that onchocerciasis can be eliminated using TaNT in L loa co-endemic areas. The required treatment duration using TaNT would be only slightly longer than in areas with conventional MDA, provided that participation is good.

Serious limitations of the current strategy to control Soil-Transmitted Helminths and added value of Ivermectin/Albendazole mass administration: A population-based observational study in Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections remain a public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa. School-based mass drug administration (MDA) using the anthelminthic drug Mebendazole/Albendazole have succeeded in controlling morbidity associated to these diseases but failed to interrupt their transmission. In areas were filarial diseases are co-endemic, another anthelminthic drug (Ivermectin) is distributed to almost the entire population, following the community-directed treatment with ivermectin (CDTI) strategy. Since Ivermectin is a broad spectrum anthelmintic known to be effective against STH, we conducted cross-sectional surveys in two health districts with very contrasting histories of Ivermectin/Albendazole-based PC in order to investigate whether CDTI might have contributed in STH transmission interruption. METHODOLOGY: Cross-sectional surveys were conducted in two health districts with similar socio-environmental patterns but with very contrasting CDTI histories (Akonolinga health district where CDTI was yet to be implemented vs. Yabassi health district where CDTI has been ongoing for two decades). Stool samples were collected from all volunteers aged >2 years old and analyzed using the Kato-Katz technique. Infections by different STH species were compared between Akonolinga and Yabassi health districts to decipher the impact of Ivermectin/Albendazole-based MDA on STH transmission. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A total of 610 and 584 participants aged 2-90 years old were enrolled in Akonolinga and Yabassi health districts, respectively. Two STH species (Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura) were found, with prevalence significantly higher in Akonolinga health district (43.3%; 95% CI: 38.1-46.6) compared to Yabassi health district (2.5%; 95% CI: 1.1-5.1) (chi-square: 90.8; df: 1; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: These findings (i) suggest that Mebendazole- or Albendazole-based MDA alone distributed only to at-risk populations might not be enough to eliminate STH, (ii) support the collateral impact of Ivermectin/Albendazole MDA on A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura infections, and (iii) suggest that Ivermectin/Albendazole-based PC could accelerate STH transmission interruption.

Situation analysis of onchocerciasis in Cameroon: a protocol for systematic review of epidemiological studies and impact of disease control interventions.

BACKGROUND: Many control methods have been implemented to tackle onchocerciasis and great successes have been achieved, leading to a paradigm shift from control of morbidity to interruption of transmission and ultimately elimination. The mandate of the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) ended in 2015, and endemic countries are to plan and conduct elimination activities by themselves, with technical assistance by the Expanded Special Project for Elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (ESPEN). To this end, an elimination expert committee was set up in Cameroon in 2018. This committee identified the need to update the data on the current situation of onchocerciasis. The present study aims to systematically review and report all available epidemiological data, including prevalence, intensity and transmission of onchocerciasis to provide pertinent information that will be useful to design optimal strategies to achieve onchocerciasis elimination in Cameroon. METHODS: PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE and Web of Science will be searched from inception onwards. Grey literature will be identified through Google Scholar searches, dissertation databases and other relevant documents such as government reports. Eligible studies will be mostly observational, including cohort and cross-sectional surveys. No limitations will be imposed on publication status and study period. The primary outcomes will be (1) the prevalence and intensity of Onchocerca volvulus infection in humans, (2) transmission intensity and (3) impact of interventions on prevalence, intensity and transmission of onchocerciasis. Secondary outcomes will be environmental and socio-demographic factors supporting the primary outcomes. Two reviewers will independently screen all citations, full-text articles and abstract data. Potential conflicts will be resolved through discussion. Methodological quality including bias will be appraised using appropriate approaches. A narrative synthesis will describe quality and content of the epidemiological evidence. Prevalence and intensity of infection estimates will be stratified according to gender, age, geographical location and year of publication. DISCUSSION: This study will provide the health authorities as well as the scientific community with up-to-date information about the epidemiological situation of onchocerciasis in Cameroon. Understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics of the infection will help to define alternative and complementary strategies to accelerate onchocerciasis elimination in the country. Results of this review will also be used to update existing epidemiological models for onchocerciasis in order to fine-tune predictions of elimination timeframes in the country. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: This protocol is under registration review in PROSPERO.

A Test-and-Not-Treat Strategy for Onchocerciasis Elimination in Loa loa-coendemic Areas: Cost Analysis of a Pilot in the Soa Health District, Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: Severe adverse events after treatment with ivermectin in individuals with high levels of Loa loa microfilariae in the blood preclude onchocerciasis elimination through community-directed treatment with ivermectin (CDTI) in Central Africa. We measured the cost of a community-based pilot using a test-and-not-treat (TaNT) strategy in the Soa health district in Cameroon. METHODS: Based on actual expenditures, we empirically estimated the economic cost of the Soa TaNT campaign, including financial costs and opportunity costs that will likely be borne by control programs and stakeholders in the future. In addition to the empirical analyses, we estimated base-case, less intensive, and more intensive resource use scenarios to explore how costs might differ if TaNT were implemented programmatically. RESULTS: The total costs of US$283 938 divided by total population, people tested, and people treated with 42% coverage were US$4.0, US$9.2, and US$9.5, respectively. In programmatic implementation, these costs (base-case estimates with less and more intensive scenarios) could be US$2.2 ($1.9-$3.6), US$5.2 ($4.5-$8.3), and US$5.4 ($4.6-$8.6), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: TaNT clearly provides a safe strategy for large-scale ivermectin treatment and overcomes a major obstacle to the elimination of onchocerciasis in areas coendemic for Loa loa. Although it is more expensive than standard CDTI, costs vary depending on the setting, the implementation choices made by the institutions involved, and the community participation rate. Research on the required duration of TaNT is needed to improve the affordability assessment, and more experience is needed to understand how to implement TaNT optimally.

Implications for annual retesting after a test-and-not-treat strategy for onchocerciasis elimination in areas co-endemic with Loa loa infection: an observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: A test-and-not-treat (TaNT) strategy has been developed to prevent people with high concentrations of circulating Loa loa microfilariae (>20 000 microfilariae per mL) developing serious adverse events after ivermectin treatment during mass drug administration to eliminate onchocerciasis. An important question related to cost and programmatic issues is whether annual retesting is required for everyone. We therefore aimed to investigate changes in L loa microfilarial densities during TaNT campaigns run 18 months apart. METHODS: In this observational cohort study, we assessed the participants of two TaNT campaigns for onchocerciasis. These campaigns, which were run by a research team, together with personnel from the Ministry of Health and community health workers, were done in six health areas (in 89 communities) in Okola health district (Cameroon); the first campaign was run between Aug 10, and Oct 29, 2015, and the second was run between March 7, and May 26, 2017. All individuals aged 5 years and older were invited to be screened for Loa loa microfilaraemia before being offered ivermectin (unless contraindicated). L loa microfilarial density was measured at the point of care using the LoaScope. All those with a L loa microfilarial density of 20 000 microfilariae per mL or less were offered treatment; in the first 2 weeks of the 2015 campaign, a higher exclusion threshold of 26 000 microfilariae per mL or less was used. At both rounds of the intervention, participants were registered with a paper form, in which personal information were collected. In 2017, we also recorded whether each individual reported participation in the 2015 campaign. The primary outcome, assessed in all participants, was whether L loa microfilarial density was above or below the exclusion threshold (ie, the criteria that guided the decision to treat). FINDINGS: In the 2015 TaNT campaign, 26 415 people were censused versus 29 587 people in the 2017 TaNT campaign. All individuals aged 5 years and older without other contraindications to treatment (22 842 people in 2015 and 25 421 people in 2017) were invited to be screened for L loa microfilaraemia before being offered ivermectin. In 2015, 16 182 individuals were examined with the LoaScope, versus 18 697 individuals in the same communities in 2017. 344 (2·1%) individuals were excluded from ivermectin treatment because of a high L loa microfilarial density in 2015, versus 283 (1·5%) individuals in 2017 (p<0·0001). Records from 2017 could be matched to those from 2015 for 6983 individuals (43·2% of the 2015 participants). In this cohort, in 2017, 6981 (>99·9%) of 6983 individuals treated with ivermectin in 2015 had L loa microfilariae density below the level associated with neurological serious adverse events. INTERPRETATION: Individuals treated with ivermectin do not need to be retested for L loa microfilaraemia before the next treatment, provided that they can be re-identified. This adjusted approach will enable substantial cost savings and facilitate reaching programmatic goals for elimination of onchocerciasis in areas that are co-endemic for loiasis. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Division of Intramural Research (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, US National Institutes of Health).